Chapter 1: Psychology as a Science

Chapter 1

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Introduction:

Elizabeth Porter welcomes to her lab the Taylor sisters, a pair of identical twins who were adopted by different families’ right after they were born. Porter is conducting a study on similarities in the behavioral and personality traits of twins and she has the Taylor sisters as her participants. Porter intends to determine the relative influence of heredity and experience on human behavior. This can be possible by comparing twins who lived together most of their lives and twins who have been separated from birth.

***

John Smith, a college student chronologically and painfully recalled events that occurred during his younger years. Smith discloses a secret that he has not revealed to anyone. The professional tries to make him feel that he is supported by telling him that there are many people who experienced the same.

It may be that the second scene suits your image of what is done in Psychology but both scenes describe work carried out by modern psychologists. There is a wide spectrum of behavior addressed by psychologists, from the most basic biological processes to the ways people are affected by their culture (Feldman, 2005). This section aims to define Psychology, its areas and four primary goals.

Psychology

Psychology refers to the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions such as talking, facial expressions, and movement.

The term mental processes refer to all the internal, covert activity of our minds such as thinking, feeling, and remembering.

Behavior and mental processes in animals and humans are studied using the scientific method so that their results will be as precise as possible.

GOALS IN PSYCHOLOGY

1.       Description

The first step in understanding anything is to label it. This involves observing a behavior and taking note of everything that is happening.

For example:  A boy, who seemed to be nervous, was seen by the store manager stealing candies from the shop.

In description, the behavior is simply described. Such description will

give a starting place for the next goal.       

2.       Explanation

This is a goal of Psychology wherein behavior is being understood by explaining it. To find out why the boy is stealing candies, the manager might want to talk to him or he might be brought to a psychologist to be assessed. Finding explanations to behavior is essential in the formation of theories.

For example: The boy tells the psychologist that he steals candies because it is a way for him to be noticed by his parents.

3.    Prediction

Prediction refers to determining what will happen in the future. In the same example, the psychologist might predict that since the root cause of the problem is the lack of parental attention, he can predict that as long as the boy feels neglected, he will continue committing anti-social acts such as stealing.

4.       Control

Modifying behavior intends to change a behavior from an undesirable one to a desirable one. In the example of the boy who stole candies, the psychologist and the parents may work together so that the boy will feel otherwise. On the other hand, the psychologist may explain to the boy that just because not enough attention is given to him does not mean he is not loved by his parents.

Behavior

                The term "behavior" has been misrepresented by many in the school psychology field, including proponents as well as opponents of behavior analysis. Proponents have used the term too loosely, while opponents have used a bit of a warped definition to attack the field.

                Furthermore, school psychologists as well as behavior analysts have also taken a very narrow view of the definition of behavior. According to Cooper, Heron, and Heward (2007), in order for a phenomenon to be considered a behavior, we need to have several conditions:

1. There must be a part of the organism which is moving.
2. There must be a change in the environment as a result of this movement.

Classification of Behavior

1. Overt behavior

                This refers to a behavior that can be observed by anyone.

2. Covert behavior

This type of behavior is characterized by a behavior that is known to the individual performing it only.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY

1.       Structuralism (1879)

This was founded by Wilhelm Wundt. He set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879 with the aim of studying the building blocks of the mind. Structuralism is a perspective that focused on the basic elements that constitute the foundation of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions and other kinds of mental states and activities. Introspection was used by Wundt and other

structuralists to understand how basic sensations combine to produce our perception of the world.

Over time, psychologists challenged structuralism. According to them, it is impossible to unlock the fundamental elements of the mind with introspection.

Also, Introspection was said to be an unscientific technique. In addition, drawbacks such as people having difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences led to the evolution of new approaches.

2.       Functionalism (1890)

This is the main perspective that came to replace structuralism. Functionalism, led by William James, focuses on what the mind does and how behavior functions.

While the structuralists were looking inside the mind, searching for its structures, the functionalists were looking more at what was going on in the person’s interaction with the outside world.

3.       Psychoanalytic Approach (1900)

This approach focuses on unconscious thought, conflict between biological instincts and society’s demands and early experiences. The psychoanalytic approach gives emphasis on the influence of sexual and aggressive impulses on the way people think, feel and behave.

Usually, these instincts are buried deep within the unconscious mind. The father of the psychoanalytic approach, Sigmund Freud believed that early relationships with parents are the main forces that shape an individual’s personality.

Since the psychoanalytic approach focuses on clinical applications rather than on experimental research, these theories have always been difficult to validate. 

4.       Gestalt Psychology (1912)

“The whole is different from the sum of its parts.” This means that when basic elements that compose our perception of objects are considered together, they produce something greater and more meaningful than those individual elements alone. Gestalt concentrates on how people consider individual elements together as units or wholes. This was founded by Max Wertheimer in the early 1900s.

5.       Behaviorism (1913)

After reading about Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with dogs, John B. Watson thought that conditioning could form the basis of a new perspective called behaviorism. Watson believed that to understand behavior, one must observe it. Behaviorism focuses on how stimulus-response would produce a behavior.

 

MODERN APPROACHOACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY

6.       Cognitive Approach (late 1950s – early 1960s)

This perspective focuses on how people think, remember, store and use information. According to cognitive psychologists, your brain embodies a mind whose mental processes allow you to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, etc.

In this view, an individual’s mental processes are in control of behavior through memories, perceptions, images and thinking.

7.       Humanistic Approach (1960)

This approach was founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The humanistic perspective held the view that people have free will and the freedom to choose their own destiny.

The humanistic approach believes that every individual has the ability to become the best person he could be.

8.       Bio-psychosocial Perspective (1977)

This was theorized by psychiatrist George Engel at the University of Rochester. In this perspective, human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body.

Hormones, heredity and diseases are considered to be some of the biological causes of behavior.

AREAS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Pure Psychology

1. Developmental Psychology

                A branch of Psychology that is concerned with how people become who they are, from conception to death. Developmental psychologists concentrate on the biological and environmental factors that contribute to human development.

2. Social Psychology

A branch of Psychology that deals with people’s social interactions, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition and attitudes. Social psychologists are interested in the influence of groups on individuals’ thinking and behavior and in the ways that the groups to which we belong influence our attitudes (Brewer, 2007).

3. Abnormal Psychology

                        A branch of Psychology that studies usual patterns of behavior,                emotion and thoughts; which may or may not be understood as            precipitating a    

       mental disorder.

Applied Psychology

1.       Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Both areas diagnose and treat people with psychological problems (Corey & Corey, 2002; James & Gillilant, 2003). Counseling psychologists sometimes deal with people who have less serious problems.

For example: Students who have personal problems and career issues.

A clinical psychologist typically has a doctoral degree in psychology, which requires 3 – 4 years of graduate work and 1 year of internship in a mental health facility.

2. Psychiatry

A branch of medicine practiced by physicians with a doctor of medicine (M.D.) degree who specializes in abnormal behavior and psychotherapy.

One important distinction between the psychiatrist and the clinical psychologist is that the psychiatrist can prescribe drugs.

3. Cognitive Psychology

                This is the field of Psychology that examines attention, consciousness, information processing and memory.

Cognitive psychologists are also interested in cognitive skills and abilities such as problem solving, decision making, expertise and intelligence.

4. Industrial and Organizational Psychology

                Industrial psychology is referred to as the personnel psychology. Its concerns are personnel matters and human resource management (Fouad, 2007).

Organizational psychology examines the social and group influences of the organization (McShane & Glinow, 2007).

5. Educational Psychology

                This branch of Psychology is concerned about children’s learning and adjustment in school. School psychologists in elementary and secondary school systems make recommendations about educational placement and work on educational planning teams.

On the other hand, educational psychologists who work at universities and colleges teach classes and do research (Alexander & Winne, 2006).

The Scientific Method

Science is not defined by what it investigates but how it investigates. The way a phenomenon is studied is what determines whether the approach is scientific.

Four attitudes that is essential to the scientific approach:

1. Curiosity
2. Skepticism
3. Objectivity
4. Willingness to think critically

Being curious, the scientist notices things in the world and wants to know what it is and why it is that way. They are also skeptical. They question things that other people take for granted. They wonder whether a supposed fact is really true. Science also means being objective.

Scientists make use of empirical methods to study a phenomenon. Being objective means trying to see things as they really are, not just as we would like them to be.

Last, science involves thinking critically. Critical thinkers question and test what some people say are facts.

THE FIVE STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1.                   Observing Some Phenomenon

The first step in conducting a scientific inquiry comes from observing some phenomenon. The phenomena scientists study are called variables.

2.                   Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions

A hypothesis is an idea that is arrived at logically from a theory. It is a prediction that can be tested. This is also referred to as an educated guess.

3.          Testing Through Empirical Research

This step refers to collecting and analyzing data. Among the important decisions to be made about collecting data are whom to choose as participants and which research methods to use.

The entire group which the investigator wants to draw conclusions is the population. The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study is referred to as a sample.

4.        Drawing Conclusions

After data have been analyzed, scientists draw conclusions         from their research.

5.        Evaluating Conclusions

The final step in the scientific method is when researchers submit their work for publication. During this stage, their work undergoes rigorous review before it is readily published for all to see.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive Research

                Descriptive research reveals important information about people’s behaviors and attitudes. It describes data and characteristics of a phenomena being studied. This method includes observation, surveys and interviews, standardized tests and case studies.

a)      Observation

A type of descriptive research wherein the researcher simply observes the phenomena and records his observation as it is.

                b) Surveys and Interviews

Interview is a process of gathering information by asking it from the participants. Survey is a related method that is useful when information from many people is needed. A standard set of questions is used to obtain people’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.

                c) Standardized Tests

This is a series of written or oral questions or sometimes both (Gregory, 2007) that participants answer. It provides information about individual differences among people.

                d) Case Studies

An in-depth look at a single individual is performed mainly by clinical psychologists for either practical or ethical reasons.

 A case study provides information about a person’s goals, hopes, fantasies, fears, traumatic experiences, family relationships or other aspects of the person’s life that would help the psychologist understand the person’s behavior.

Correlational Research

                Correlational research refers to studies that are concerned with identifying the relationships between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables change together.

The numerical value of correlation coefficient always falls within the range from -1.00 to +1.00. A positive correlation indicates that the relationship of two factors vary in the same direction.

A negative correlation is a relationship in which an increase in one variable will lead to a decrease in another.

Experimental Research

                Experimental research is a method that allows us to determine whether “A” causes “B.” It is a method that allows us to make causal statements.

·         An independent variable is an independently manipulated experimental factor. It is a potential cause.

·         A dependent variable is a factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable.

               

Experiments can involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups.

·         An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated.

·         A control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.